What are variables Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

What are variables - Essay Example A variable is anything whose value can vary. For instance age is a variable as age varies for different persons. Variables need not be numerical always. Gender is a variable as it consists of two text values ‘male’ and ‘female’. An attribute refers to specific values of the variable. For example, the variable gender has two attributes- male and female. The variable agreement may have five attributes- (a) strongly agree, (b) disagree (c) neutral (d) agree and (e) strongly agree (Trochim, 2006).Every variable has some attributes.For studying cause- effect relationship, the distinction between independent variable and dependent variable must be clear. The independent variable is what the researcher manipulates. The dependent variable is that which is affected by the independent variable. The independent variable is the cause or treatment and the dependent variable is the effect or outcome. For example, while studying the effects of traffic rule awareness campai gns to reduce accidents, the program is the independent variable and the achievements are dependent variables. A variable should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. Exhaustive means that a variable should include all possible responses. For this purpose, list all the important attributes and use a general category like â€Å"other† to represent remaining ones. Also, variables should be mutually exclusive. It means that no one should be able to have two attributes simultaneously. Operationalization The meaning of a research study depends on how objectively the phenomena under consideration are observed. So developing a reliable and valid set of procedures for measuring the variables is crucial for the validity of research study (Operational Definitions, 2005). The first step for an operational definition is to specify the constructs. How observations are made, what is observed, how observations are to be recorded have to be specified accurately. Sample Sampling is the proces s of selecting units from a population so that by studying the sample, it would be able to generalise results back to the population. Related to generalisation is the concept of external validity. Validity refers to the approximate truth of conclusions (Trochim, 2006). External validity refers to the degree to which conclusions in the study would hold for other persons in other places at other times (Trochim, 2006). There are two major methods for selecting sample for generalisation. One is called sampling model. In it, the population to be generalised is identified and a fair sample is drawn to conduct the research. Since the sample is representative of the population, the generalisations are applicable to the population. The second approach is called proximal similarity model. The term proximal similarity was suggested by Donald T. Campbell. In this approach, several generizability contexts are considered and theories are developed as to which situation or context is more similar to the study and which are less similar. By doing so, it is possible to generalise the results of the study to other persons, places or times that are more like the study (Trochim, 2006). The population to be generalised is called theoretical population. The population that is accessible to the study is called accessible population. The list of accessible population from which sample is drawn is known as sampling frame. For example, if a phone survey is to be done with a phone book, the phone book is the sampling frame. The sample is the group of people, who are selected for the study. But, the group that actually completes the study is the sub sample of the sample only. There is a distinction between random selection and random assignment. Random selection refers to how sample is selected. Random assignment refers to how different treatments are assigned to the sample selected for study. In sampling, the units are usually people and they supply responses. A response is a specific m easurement value. A statistic is used to look at the responses of the entire sample. Mean, median,

Establish the topic from the paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Establish the topic from the paper - Essay Example In the second treatise Locke presented his ideas of the nature, function, authority and origin of government, as well as the roles of its various branches. Locke began the second treatise with his analysis of the (then popular) concept of the ‘State of Nature’. The ‘State of Nature’ is the natural state of being of mankind. In this natural state the government is either non-existent or highly ineffective. Locke maintained that in the state of nature men are, â€Å"perfectly free to order their actions, and dispose of their possessions and themselves, in any way they like, without asking anyone’s permission—subject only to limits set by the law of nature† (2nd Treatise, 4). Since in the state of nature men’s actions are limited by the â€Å"law of nature†, hence, even though it is a state of ‘liberty’ it is not a state of ‘license’. No one is allowed to harm the â€Å"life, health, liberty, or poss essions† of another (2nd Treatise, 6). The law of nature is nothing but reason, which aims at the preservation of mankind. It creates obligations for everyone alike (everyone who consults it, is aware of this fact). The state of nature is also a state of equality, in which all have equal authority and power. A person who abides by the ‘law of nature’ can harm another person only if that person has broken the law of nature by committing a grave offence. Even so, the punishment meted out to the offender must not be extreme or irrational, but must aim only at â€Å"reparation and restraint† (2nd Treatise, 8). Therefore, everyone in the state of nature has the right to use force to protect his life, liberty and possessions. However, since everyone in the state of nature is equal, there are no means for resolving conflicts. Also, a number of people either do not strictly follow, or misapply the law of nature. This is why the state of nature is a dangerous state, wherein the life, liberty and possessions of individuals are in constant peril. Therefore, it is only natural that people living in such a state come together to constitute a political body, namely the government. The members of a society enter an agreement whereby they cede power and authority to a political entity, whose functions it is to ensure the protection of their life, liberty and possessions (Locke gives these assets the general name of Property). This agreement is known as a Social Contract (a device used frequently by philosophers). Locke wrote, â€Å"I take political power to be a right to make laws—with the death penalty and consequently all lesser penalties—for regulating and preserving property, and to employ the force of the community in enforcing such laws and defending the commonwealth from external attack; all this being only for the public good† (2nd Treatise, 3). This statement illustrates clearly what Locke saw as the role of government. Notice, however, that all the actions of the government are to confirm to a regard for the public good. The Social Contract only justifies the authority of a government that acts in the best interest of its subjects. Moreover, the government cannot usurp the property of a subject (unless the subject himself breaks the Social Contract). The right to property not only existed prior to the formation of the government, but it was also its sole purpose. Therefore, the subjects have the right to rebel if the government does not honor the Social Contract, and damages their property. Locke’